The Age of Revolutions and Unification of Nations

A New Conservatism After 1815:

• • After Napoleon’s defeat, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.

  • Conservatives believed in traditional institutions (monarchy, Church, social hierarchies, property, family).

  • However, they realised modernization could strengthen traditional institutions.

  • Congress of Vienna (1815):

    • Meeting of European powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria).

    • Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.

    • Treaty of Vienna:

      • Restored Bourbon dynasty to power in France.

      • France lost territories annexed under Napoleon.

      • Series of states created on French borders to prevent future expansion (e.g., Kingdom of the Netherlands, Piedmont-Sardinia got new territories).

      • Prussia given new territories on western frontiers, Austria got control of northern Italy.

      • German Confederation of 39 states (created by Napoleon) was left untouched.

      • Main aim: Undo changes of Napoleonic era, restore monarchies, create a new conservative order.

  • The Revolutionaries:

    • Feared by conservatives, went underground.

    • Secret Societies: Formed to train revolutionaries and spread ideas.

    • Giuseppe Mazzini (1807-1872):

      • Italian revolutionary, member of Carbonari secret society.

      • Founded ‘Young Italy’ (Marseilles) and ‘Young Europe’ (Berne).

      • Believed in unification of Italy into a single republic.

      • Described by Metternich as “the most dangerous enemy of our social order.”

• The Age of Revolutions (1830-1848):

  • Liberal Revolutions: Driven by liberal-nationalists in Italy, Germany, Ottoman Empire (Greece), Ireland, Poland.

  • July Revolution (1830) in France:

    • Bourbon kings (restored in 1815) overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.

    • Constitutional monarchy installed with Louis Philippe as head.

    • “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.” – Metternich.

  • Greek War of Independence:

    • Struggle for independence from Ottoman Empire (since 1821).

    • Supported by West European powers (due to ancient Greek culture).

    • Poets and artists mobilized public opinion.

    • Treaty of Constantinople (1832): Recognized Greece as an independent nation.

• The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling:

  • Culture played a crucial role in creating the idea of the nation (art, poetry, stories, music).

  • Romanticism: Emphasized emotion, intuition, mystical feeling. Rejected reason and science.

  • Goal: Create a shared collective heritage, common cultural past as the basis of a nation.

  • Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803): German Romantic philosopher. Believed true German culture was discovered among common people (das Volk) through folk songs, folk poetry, folk dances.

  • Vernacular Language: Collecting folk culture was essential for nation-building, especially in countries like Poland (under Russian, Prussian, Austrian occupation).

  • Karol Kurpinski: Celebrated national struggle through operas and music, turning folk dances like polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

  • Language as a Symbol: Polish language used as a weapon of national resistance against Russian dominance (e.g., after 1831 armed rebellion).

• Hunger, Hardship, and Popular Revolt:

  • 1830s-1840s: Great economic hardship in Europe.

  • Population increase, joblessness, migration, stiff competition for manufactured goods.

  • Food shortages and widespread pauperism in countryside and cities.

  • Silesian Weavers’ Revolt (1845): Against contractors who drastically reduced payments for their finished goods.

  • Revolt in Paris (1848): Food shortages, unemployment. Louis Philippe forced to flee. National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males (above 21), guaranteed right to work, set up national workshops.

• The 1848 Revolution of the Liberals:

  • Coincided with revolts of poor.

  • Led by educated middle classes (men and women).

  • Demanded constitutionalism with national unification, creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles (constitution, freedom of press, freedom of association).

  • Frankfurt Parliament (1848):

    • Large number of political associations met in Frankfurt.

    • 831 elected representatives marched to Frankfurt parliament (St. Paul’s Church) to draft a constitution for a united German nation (under a monarchy, subject to a parliament).

    • King of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, rejected the crown.

    • Disunity among liberals (middle class vs. workers/artisans).

    • Women’s Role: Active participants (formed political associations, founded newspapers, took part in demonstrations), but denied suffrage rights and admitted only as observers to Frankfurt Parliament.

  • Outcome of 1848 Revolutions: Conservatives suppressed liberal movements but realised concessions were needed. Serfdom and bonded labour abolished in Habsburg dominions and Russia.

• The Making of Germany and Italy:

  • Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

    • After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and revolution.

    • Conservative and militaristic sentiments grew.

    • Prussia’s Leadership: Otto von Bismarck (Chief Minister) was the architect of German unification.

    • Three wars over seven years (with Austria, Denmark, France) ended in Prussian victory.

    • January 1871: Prussian King William I proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles.

    • The new German Empire focused on modernising currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems.

  • Italy Unified:

    • Political fragmentation (7 states, only Sardinia-Piedmont ruled by an Italian princely house).

    • Mazzini: Advocated for a united Italian Republic. Failed uprisings in 1831 and 1848.

    • Count Camillo de Cavour (Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont):

      • Led the movement for Italian unification (neither revolutionary nor democrat).

      • Alliance with France (1859), defeated Austrian forces.

    • Giuseppe Garibaldi:

      • Led ‘expedition of the Thousand’ (1860) to South Italy and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

      • Gained support of local peasants, drove out Spanish rulers.

    • 1861: Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed king of united Italy.

    • Illiteracy, unawareness among peasant masses who supported Garibaldi.

    • Rome became part of united Italy in 1870.