This MCQ module is based on: Caste System: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Dynamics
Caste System: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Dynamics
Study Notes and Summary
- Caste as a Unique Institution: Caste is an ancient social institution uniquely associated with the Indian subcontinent, though similar effects have existed elsewhere.
- Spread Beyond Hinduism: While characteristic of Hindu society, caste has spread to major non-Hindu communities in India, including Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs.
- Terminology:
- The English word ‘caste’ is borrowed from the Portuguese ‘casta’, meaning ‘pure breed’.
- Indian languages use two distinct terms:
- Varna: Literally ‘colour’, a four-fold division: brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya, and shudra. It excludes ‘outcastes’ or ‘panchamas’ (fifth category).
- Jati: Generic term for species or kinds. It’s the most common term for caste in Indian languages, though ‘caste’ is increasingly used.
- Varna vs. Jati: Varna is a broad, all-India classification, while jati is a regional/local sub-classification with a more complex system of hundreds or thousands of castes and sub-castes.
- Historical Evolution of Caste:
- The four-varna classification is roughly three thousand years old.
- In its earliest phase (late Vedic period, c. 900-500 BC), the varna system was less rigid, not determined by birth, and movement across categories was possible and common.
- Caste became a rigid institution determined by birth only in the post-Vedic period.
- Defining Features of Traditional Caste (Prescribed Rules):
- Determination by Birth: Caste is inherited from parents; it is not a matter of choice and generally cannot be changed (though expulsion is possible).
- Endogamy: Strict rules about marriage, restricting it to members within the same caste group.
- Food Rules: Prescribed rules about what foods can be eaten and with whom food can be shared.
- Hierarchy: A system of many castes arranged in a hierarchy of rank and status, with every caste having a specified place (though middle ranks may vary regionally).
- Segmental Organization: Castes often have sub-divisions (sub-castes and sub-sub-castes).
- Hereditary Occupation: Traditionally linked to occupations, meaning a person could only practice the occupation of their birth caste, and other castes could not enter it.
- Principles of Caste System:
- Difference and Separation: Each caste is distinct and strictly separated, with rules preventing mixing (marriage, food, social interaction, occupation).
- Wholism and Hierarchy: Castes exist only in relation to the larger societal whole, which is a hierarchical system based on an ordered rank from highest to lowest.
- Purity and Pollution: The hierarchical ordering is based on the distinction between ‘purity’ (closer to sacred, high status) and ‘pollution’ (distant/opposed to sacred, low status).
- Complementary and Non-Competing: Castes were traditionally seen as complementary, each having its own place and preventing occupational mobility.
- Colonialism and Caste:
- Major changes occurred during the colonial period (c. 1800-1947). Some scholars argue modern caste is more a product of colonialism than ancient tradition.
- British administrators systematically collected information through surveys and, most importantly, the census.
- Census Impact: The regular ten-yearly census (from 1881, especially the 1901 Census under Herbert Risley) sought to record caste social hierarchy. This formalized and rigidified caste identities, which were previously more fluid.
- Government of India Act 1935: Gave legal recognition to ‘schedules’ of castes and tribes for special state treatment, leading to terms ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and ‘Scheduled Castes’ (including ‘untouchable’ castes).
- Caste in the Present (Post-Independence):
- Nationalist Movement: Efforts to organize “depressed classes” (untouchables) began in the mid-19th century (e.g., Mahatma Jotiba Phule, Babasaheb Ambedkar, Ayyankali, Sri Narayana Guru, Iyotheedass, Periyar).
- Abolition Goal: The nationalist movement, led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi, broadly agreed to abolish caste distinctions, viewing caste as a social evil and a colonial ploy.
- Contradictions of the Post-Independence State:
- Committed to abolishing caste (written in Constitution).
- Unwilling/unable to implement radical reforms undermining economic basis of caste inequality.
- Assumed a “caste-blind” approach would abolish caste privileges (e.g., government job appointments without caste consideration, except for reservations).
- Impact of Modernization:
- New industrial jobs without caste rules.
- Urbanization made caste-segregated social interaction difficult.
- Educated Indians influenced by individualism and meritocracy abandoned extreme caste practices.
- Resilience of Caste:
- Caste and kinship still influenced recruitment in industries.
- Prejudice against untouchables persisted in cities, though less extreme than in villages.
- Cultural/Domestic Sphere: Strongest sphere of caste, with endogamy (marrying within caste) remaining largely unaffected. Most marriages are still within caste boundaries.
- Politics and Caste:
- Democratic politics deeply conditioned by caste since independence.
- Emergence of explicitly caste-based political parties since the 1980s.
- Caste solidarities are central to electoral politics, with parties competing using “caste calculus.”
- Sociological Concepts of Change:
- Sanskritisation (M.N. Srinivas): Members of a lower/middle caste adopt ritual, domestic, and social practices of a higher caste to raise their status.
- Dominant Caste (M.N. Srinivas): Castes with large populations granted land rights after Independence, acquiring economic and political power (through universal adult franchise). They were often intermediate castes dependent on lower-caste labor. Examples: Yadavs (Bihar/UP), Vokkaligas (Karnataka), Reddys/Khammas (Andhra Pradesh), Marathas (Maharashtra), Jats (Punjab/Haryana/W. UP), Patidars (Gujarat).
- Invisibility of Caste for Upper Castes: For upper-caste, urban middle/upper classes who benefited most from post-colonial development, caste has become “invisible” as their inherited economic and educational capital ensures continued privilege. They perceive caste as limited to personal/religious spheres.
- Visibility of Caste for Lower Castes: For Scheduled Castes, Tribes, and Backward Castes, caste has become highly visible, often eclipsing other aspects of their identity. They rely on caste identity and reservation policies due to lack of inherited capital and continued discrimination.
Practice MCQs
Assessment Worksheets
This assessment will be based on: Caste System: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Dynamics
Advanced-level (Competition level) Focus & Application
- Real-Life Connections & General Knowledge:
- The legacy of colonial census operations in rigidifying caste categories is a significant topic in post-colonial studies and identity politics in India.
- The efforts of social reformers like Jotiba Phule, Babasaheb Ambedkar, and Periyar highlight historical struggles against caste oppression, relevant to contemporary social justice movements and debates on affirmative action.
- The concept of ‘Sanskritisation’ can be observed in various forms of social mobility attempts by groups trying to emulate dominant cultural practices, not just in India but in other stratified societies.
- Case-based Scenarios & Reasoning:
- A newly independent nation with diverse ethnic groups decides to conduct a comprehensive census. Based on India’s colonial experience with caste, what potential pitfalls should they anticipate regarding the rigidification of identities and inter-group competition?
- A political party in India bases its entire electoral strategy on appealing to a specific “dominant caste” group. Analyze the potential strengths and weaknesses of such a strategy in the context of contemporary Indian electoral politics.
- An individual from an economically privileged upper-caste background claims that caste no longer matters in modern India. How would you challenge this assertion using the sociological understanding of caste’s “invisibility” for some groups versus its persistent “visibility” for others?
- Conceptual Application:
- Discuss how the theoretical distinction between ‘varna’ and ‘jati’ helps sociologists understand the layered complexity and regional variations of the caste system in India.
- Explain how the “purity and pollution” principle, beyond its ritualistic aspect, has historically structured economic and social interactions within the caste system, including access to resources and occupations.
- Analyze the paradoxical impact of protective discrimination (reservations) on the identity of Scheduled Castes and Tribes, making their caste simultaneously a source of opportunity and a marker of their identity.
- Comparative & Analytical Points:
- Compare and contrast the characteristics of the caste system in the late Vedic period with its rigid form in the post-Vedic period, focusing on factors like determination by birth and social mobility.
- Analyze how the colonial administration’s attempts to “understand” and “govern” India through the census inadvertently led to the rigidification and redefinition of caste identities.
- Discuss the inherent contradictions in the post-Independence Indian state’s approach to caste abolition, balancing constitutional ideals with socio-economic realities and political pragmatism.
