India’s Conflicts with China and Pakistan

  • Early India-China Relations: Free India began its relationship with China on a very friendly note. India was one of the first countries to recognize the communist government after the Chinese revolution in 1949. Nehru supported China in international forums.
  • Concerns about China: Some of Nehru’s colleagues, like Vallabhbhai Patel, were concerned about potential Chinese aggression, but Nehru dismissed it as “exceedingly unlikely”. The Chinese border was initially guarded by para-military forces, not the army.
  • Panchsheel Agreement: The joint enunciation of Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, by Indian Prime Minister Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on April 29, 1954, was a step towards stronger bilateral relations.
  • Tibet Issue:
    • Tibet, a plateau in Central Asia, historically caused tension between India and China. China claimed administrative control, and Tibet was sometimes independent.
    • China took control of Tibet in 1950. India tried to persuade China to recognize Tibet’s claims for independence.
    • In the 1954 Panchsheel agreement, India conceded China’s claim over Tibet by respecting its territorial integrity and sovereignty.
    • Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama informed Nehru in 1956 about worsening situation in Tibet, despite China’s assurance of greater autonomy.
    • Armed uprising in Tibet against Chinese occupation in 1958 was suppressed.
    • Dalai Lama sought and was granted asylum in India in 1959. China strongly protested this.
    • Large numbers of Tibetans sought refuge in India and other countries. Dharamshala in Himachal Pradesh became the largest refuge settlement and Dalai Lama’s home in India.
    • Indian political parties like the Socialist Party and Jan Sangh supported Tibet’s independence cause in the 1950s-60s.
    • Tibetans oppose China’s claim that Tibet is integral, and its policy of Chinese settlement, believing it undermines Tibetan religion/culture and disputes the granted autonomy.
  • Sino-Indian Border Dispute (1962 War):
    • Border disputes erupted in 1960. Talks between Nehru and Mao Tsetung proved futile.
    • Main dispute areas: Aksai-chin in Ladakh (J&K) and much of Arunachal Pradesh (then NEFA).
    • China occupied the Aksai-chin area and built a strategic road between 1957 and 1959.
    • Differences remained unresolved despite extensive correspondence and discussion among top leaders. Small border skirmishes occurred.
    • October 1962 Invasion: While world attention was on the Cuban Missile Crisis, China launched a swift, massive invasion in October 1962 on both disputed regions.
    • Course of War: First attack lasted a week, Chinese captured key areas in Arunachal Pradesh. Second attack next month: Indian forces blocked western front (Ladakh), but Chinese advanced to Assam plains in the east.
    • Ceasefire: China declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew troops to pre-invasion positions.
  • Impact of 1962 War:
    • Dented India’s image at home and abroad.
    • India sought military assistance from US and UK; Soviet Union remained neutral during the conflict.
    • Induced national humiliation but strengthened nationalism.
    • Top army commanders resigned/retired; Defence Minister V. Krishna Menon (Nehru’s close associate) resigned.
    • Nehru’s stature suffered due to criticism for naïve assessment of China and lack of military preparedness.
    • First no-confidence motion against Nehru’s government was moved and debated in the Lok Sabha. Congress lost some key by-elections, indicating a changing political mood.
  • Sino-Indian Relations Post-1962:
    • Normal relations resumed more than a decade later, with full diplomatic ties restored in 1976.
    • Atal Behari Vajpayee (then External Affairs Minister) visited China in 1979.
    • Rajiv Gandhi was the first PM after Nehru to visit China.
    • Emphasis since then has shifted to trade relations.
  • Impact on CPI: The Sino-Indian conflict and growing China-Soviet Union rift caused irreconcilable differences within the Communist Party of India (CPI).
    • Pro-USSR faction remained in CPI, moving closer to Congress.
    • Pro-China faction formed Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M) in 1964; many leaders arrested for being pro-China after the war.
  • Impact on Northeast India: The war alerted Indian leadership to the volatile, isolated, and underdeveloped Northeast region, posing challenges for national integration and political unity.
    • Reorganization began soon after: Nagaland granted statehood; Manipur and Tripura (UTs) got legislative assemblies.
  • Wars and Peace with Pakistan:
    • Kashmir Dispute: Conflict began just after Partition (1947) over Kashmir. A proxy war broke out in Kashmir in 1947 but did not turn into a full war; the issue was referred to the UN.
    • Pakistan as a Factor: Pakistan soon emerged as a critical factor in India’s relations with the US and subsequently with China.
    • Cooperation despite Conflict: Governments cooperated to restore abducted women to their original families after Partition.
    • Indus Waters Treaty (1960): Resolved a long-term river water sharing dispute through World Bank mediation, signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan. This treaty has worked well despite fluctuations in Indo-Pak relations.
    • 1965 War:
      • Began in April 1965 with Pakistani armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch (Gujarat).
      • Followed by a bigger offensive in J&K in Aug-Sept 1965; Pakistani rulers hoped for local support, which did not materialise.
      • Lal Bahadur Shastri (PM) ordered a counter-offensive on the Punjab border to ease pressure on Kashmir.
      • Indian army reached close to Lahore in a fierce battle.
      • Hostilities ended with UN intervention.
      • Tashkent Agreement (Jan 1966): Signed by Shastri and Gen. Ayub Khan, brokered by the Soviet Union.
      • Impact: India inflicted considerable military loss, but the war added to India’s already difficult economic situation.
  • Bangladesh War (1971):
    • Pakistan’s Internal Crisis (1970): First general election led to a split verdict – Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s party won in West Pakistan, Awami League (Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman) swept East Pakistan.
    • East Pakistan’s Grievances: Bengali population protested years of being treated as second-class citizens by West Pakistan rulers.
    • Pakistani Rulers’ Refusal: Unwilling to accept the democratic verdict or the Awami League’s demand for a federation.
    • Crackdown: In early 1971, Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib and unleashed a reign of terror in East Pakistan.
    • Bangladesh Liberation Struggle: People started a struggle to liberate ‘Bangladesh’ from Pakistan.
    • Refugee Influx: India bore the burden of about 80 lakh refugees who fled East Pakistan throughout 1971.
    • India’s Support: Extended moral and material support to the Bangladesh freedom struggle. Pakistan accused India of conspiracy.
    • US-China Axis: US and China supported Pakistan. Henry Kissinger (US President Richard Nixon’s adviser) made a secret visit to China via Pakistan in July 1971, leading to a realignment of forces.
    • Indo-Soviet Treaty (Aug 1971): To counter the US-Pakistan-China axis, India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union, assuring Soviet support if India faced any attack.
    • Full-Scale War (Dec 1971): After months of diplomatic tension and military build-up, a full-scale war broke out. Pakistani aircraft attacked Punjab and Rajasthan, while the army moved on the J&K front.
    • India’s Response: India retaliated with an attack involving the air force, navy, and army on both the Western and Eastern fronts.
    • Rapid Progress: Indian army made rapid progress in East Pakistan, welcomed and supported by the local population.
    • Dhaka Surrender: Within 10 days, the Indian army surrounded Dhaka; about 90,000 Pakistani army personnel surrendered.
    • Unilateral Ceasefire: With Bangladesh as a free country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire.
    • Shimla Agreement (July 3, 1972): Signed between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, formalizing the return of peace.
    • Impact: Decisive victory led to national jubilation, seen as a moment of glory and a clear sign of India’s growing military prowess. Indira Gandhi’s personal popularity soared (she had already won the Lok Sabha elections in 1971).
  • Kargil Confrontation (1999):
    • In early 1999, points on the Indian side of the LoC (Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar, Batalik) were occupied by forces claiming to be Mujahideens.
    • Indian forces reacted, suspecting involvement of the Pakistan Army, leading to conflict.
    • Lasted May-June 1999. India recovered control of many of the lost points by July 26, 1999.
    • Drew worldwide attention as both India and Pakistan had attained nuclear capability only one year prior.
    • Conflict remained confined only to the Kargil region.
    • Controversy in Pakistan: Alleged that the Prime Minister of Pakistan was kept in the dark by the Army Chief. Soon after the conflict, the government of Pakistan was taken over by the Pakistan Army led by General Pervez Musharraf.
  • Impact of Wars on Development: Conflicts derailed Five-Year Plans. Scarce resources were diverted to the defense sector, especially after 1962, for military modernization.
    • Dept. of Defence Production established November 1962; Dept. of Defence Supplies in November 1965.
    • The Third Plan (1961-66) was affected and followed by three Annual Plans; the Fourth Plan could be initiated only in 1969.
    • India’s defence expenditure increased enormously after the wars.
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This MCQ module is based on: India’s Conflicts with China and Pakistan

This assessment will be based on: India’s Conflicts with China and Pakistan

  • Real-Life Connections & General Knowledge:
    • The ongoing India-China border dispute, particularly in Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, is a direct legacy of the issues that led to the 1962 war.
    • The Indus Waters Treaty stands as a rare example of successful water diplomacy between hostile nations, offering lessons for other transboundary resource disputes.
  • Case-based Scenarios & Reasoning:
    • Scenario: A newly decolonized state faces internal unrest and a refugee crisis originating from a neighboring state. Drawing parallels from the Bangladesh War, discuss the international and domestic pressures this state would face and its policy options.
    • Scenario: Analyze the strategic dilemma for India when faced with the US-Pakistan-China axis during the 1971 war, and how the Indo-Soviet Treaty addressed this challenge without formally abandoning non-alignment.
  • Conceptual Application:
    • Explain how the “buffer state” concept applies to Tibet in the context of India-China relations before its annexation by China.
    • Discuss the concept of “unilateral ceasefire” in international conflict resolution and its strategic implications for the declaring party.
  • Numerical/Data Interpretation:
    • Analyze the dates of the 1962 , 1965 , and 1971 wars in relation to India’s Five-Year Plans to understand the immediate economic impact and diversion of resources.
    • Examine the headlines from various newspapers during the 1965 and 1971 wars to gauge public sentiment and media portrayal of the conflicts.
  • Comparative & Analytical Points:
    • Compare and contrast the causes and outcomes of the 1962 , 1965 , and 1971 wars, highlighting the evolving nature of India’s external challenges.
    • Analyze the internal political consequences of the 1962 war for Nehru’s leadership and the Congress party, contrasting it with the consolidation of power after the 1971 war.
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